Harnischfeger Corporation Essay Example

Harnischfeger Corporation Paper Questions 1. Identify all the accounting policy changes and the accounting estimates that Harnischfeger made during 1984. Estimate, as accurately as possible, the effect of these on the company? s 1984 reported profits. 2. What do you think are the motives of Harnischfeger? s management in making the changes in its financial reporting policies? Do you think investors will see through these changes? Answers 1. Identify all the accounting policy changes and the accounting estimates that Harnischfeger made during 1984. Estimate, as accurately as possible, the effect of these on the company? s 1984 reported profits. a. Changes that affect the Harnischfeger Revenues: †¢ The company start to account Kobe Steel sales in US, previously it only add the gross margin in the financial statement. (this sales represents $28 millions) †¢ Sales to a foreign subsidiary starts to be consolidated as a net revenues (this sales represents $5,4 millions) b. Changes that affect the Harnischfeger profitability: †¢ Change in the depreciation accounting method from accelerated to straight line method. Increase of $11 million in 1984 income †¢ Change on the company’s net residual value. Increased net income in $ 3,4 millions c. Inventories Liquidation: †¢ The company had a $ 2,4 million increase in its net income, as a result of LIFO inventory liquidation. 2. What do you think are the motives of Harnischfeger? s management in making the changes in its financial reporting policies? Do you think investors will see through these changes? It seems that the company had a better accounting result, not a better â€Å"operating† result. We will write a custom essay sample on Harnischfeger Corporation specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Harnischfeger Corporation specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Harnischfeger Corporation specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In order to report a better financial Statement (and increase its bonus based on accounting net income) the management decrease depreciation â€Å"levels†, increase revenues and switch inventories method of accounting. In my point of view, the expense reduction in SGA might be not enough to change the scenario. Worst than that is the cut on investment in RD, which apparently happened in 1984 and might affect future growth and results. There are good chances that the company’s investors do not see these actions with good eyes†¦

Legalization of Marijuana for medical purposes Essays

Legalization of Marijuana for medical purposes Essays Legalization of Marijuana for medical purposes Paper Legalization of Marijuana for medical purposes Paper Proponents of legalizing cannabis for medicinal use suggest the drug could help many who currently suffer from illness and disease. Opponents of the idea assert that the legal drugs currently available provide appropriate relief from relevant symptoms. These different viewpoints have inspired spirited debates. An unbiased assessment of the drugs costs and benefits requires extensive research. Investigations must reveal the drugs ability to alleviate symptoms without creating unsatisfactory side effects. Smoked cannabis clearly helps some problems and may cost less than other medications. Synthetic cannabinoids can also alleviate symptoms of many disorders. Data suggest that cannabinoids can work well alone; they might also function effectively as part of a combination of therapies. For certain disorders, standard medications other than the cannabinoids remain the treatment of choice. Yet given the vast individual differences in reactions to medications, a few people may not improve with standard treatments and may respond better to medical cannabis. There is not enough research on most medical applications of cannabinoids to draw any firm conclusions about efficacy. Further work on marijuanas medical utility appears warranted. (Hans A. Baer, Merrill Singer, Ida Susser, 1997) Controlled studies reveal that cannabinoids can decrease pressure inside the eye for glaucoma patients, alleviate pain, reduce vomiting, enhance appetite, promote weight gain, and minimize spasticity and involuntary movement. Other work suggests additional therapeutic effects for asthma, insomnia, and anxiety. Yet only a few studies have compared cannabinoids to established treatments for these problems. Case studies and animal research suggest that the drug may also help a host of other medical and psychological conditions. These include seizures, tumors, insomnia, menstrual cramps, premenstrual syndrome, Crohns disease, tinnitus, schizophrenia, adult attention deficit disorder, uncontrollable violent episodes, post-traumatic stress disorder, and, surprisingly, drug addiction. The cases may provide enough evidence to stimulate researchers to conduct randomized clinical trials examining the impact of cannabinoids on these problems. (Erich Goode, 2001) The evidence of marijuanas effectiveness for treating each of these medical conditions appears below. Surgical Pain A more practical approach to the study of marijuanas analgesic effects involves using the drug after surgery. Studies of THC-induced analgesia after surgery report either mixed or positive results. In one study, men who needed four molars pulled had they removed in four separate sessions under four different conditions. They received placebo, diazepam (an anti-anxiety medication), and two different doses of THC prior to tooth extraction. Results were mixed. This study is often cited as evidence that THC produced no analgesia. In fact, 3 participants rated the low dose as good or excellent and preferred it to the placebo; 6 others preferred placebo to THC. The high dose of THC was the least desirable of all the treatments. The results suggest that marijuana may relieve pain for a subset of individuals but not others and then only at an optimal dose. A study of pain from trauma or surgery revealed that levonantradol, a synthetic version of THC, reduced pain more than a placebo. This evidence suggests that cannabinoids may show some promise in the treatment of acute pain, but tells little about the potential for handling more chronic conditions. (Peter J. Cohen, 2006) Headache One recurring painful condition that may benefit from cannabis treatment is headache. Migraine, a form of headache that often includes severe throbbing accompanied by disturbed vision, chills, sweating, nausea, and vomiting, can be extremely debilitating. Bright lights, loud sounds, or pungent odors can initiate the pain. Symptoms often begin with visual disturbances like seeing flashes or auras. Then sufferers feel extreme tension and fatigue. Eventually, a pulsing begins, sometimes on only one side of the head, where blood vessels outside the cranium dilate. These expanded arteries activate nerve fibers in the scalp, causing absolute agony. In the United States, roughly 23 million people suffer from these headaches. One-fourth of these individuals have at least four migraine attacks a month. Most of these people have their first severe headache before they turn 20. Productivity lost to migraine may cost up to $17. 2 billion per year. Treatments for this form of headache remain imperfect. Biofeedback, which trains people to use relaxation and imagery to change blood flow, has proven particularly helpful. With as little as eight sessions of proper therapy, people can learn to shrink the arteries or decrease the blood flow at the site of the pain, bringing meaningful relief to a headache. Several medications help alleviate symptoms for some sufferers, but fail to help 30% of people. These drugs also produce aversive side effects in up to 66% of patients. The disadvantages of these medications led some migraine sufferers to try marijuana. Physicians have prescribed cannabis for headache since as early as 1874. Advocates of the treatment protested when it was removed from the U. S. Pharmacopoeia in 1942. Marijuana may have an advantage over other painkillers, such as the opiates, because cannabis not only combats headache pain, but it also inhibits the nausea and vomiting associated with migraine. Investigators have not conducted clinical trials to support marijuanas efficacy as a headache treatment, but case reports abound. Users claim that smoking cannabis at the first sign of symptoms can combat the entire episode. Investigations on animals suggest that a specific brain region involved in migraine, the periaqueductal gray, contains many cannabinoid receptors. This basic research, coupled with the case reports, led the Institute of Medicine to suggest that further work on cannabinoids and migraine is warranted. Ideal studies could compare cannabis products to established medications to help verify the utility of the drug. If cannabinoids prove equally effective with fewer side effects and lower costs, they might make a superb addition to the available treatments for migraines. Combinations of cannabinoids and other medications might also prove particularly useful. (James R. Mcdonough, 2000) Pain Patients seek medical assistance for pain more often than any other symptom. People experience a variety of pains that include diffuse, throbbing pressures or sharp, specific aches. Entire journals devote volumes to research on pain treatment. Some therapies are quite simple and cause few side effects. For example, a mere placebo can minimize pain in 16% of surgery patients. Relatively simple behavioral interventions also decrease pain. Symptoms often vary with tension and mood. Thus, relaxation, stress reduction, and biofeedback can help significantly. Alternative treatments, like acupuncture, alleviate symptoms in some studies but not others, perhaps depending on the intensity and location of the pain. Despite the success of other treatments, pharmacological interventions remain extremely popular remedies for pain. The simplest include aspirin, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, naproxen sodium, and other over-the-counter analgesics. Americans consume over 10,000 tons of these drugs a year. They are relatively cheap, have few side effects at appropriate dosages, and work well for mild pain. Nevertheless, they all can be toxic. An aspirin overdose can damage stomach lining, liver, and kidneys. A dozen acetaminophen tablets can kill a child. Other pain killers that help severe symptoms include opiates like morphine and codeine. These work quite well even for extreme distress, inducing analgesia and an indifference to pain. People take them to recover from acute stressors like surgery. Chronic pain patients may have pumps installed in their spinal cords to release these drugs continuously. The primary drawbacks of the opiates concern their potential lethality and high liability for abuse and dependence. Opiate overdoses can be fatal. People develop tolerance quickly and often increase their doses with continued use. Withdrawal from these drugs includes extremely aversive flu-like symptoms and spastic muscle twitches. Thus, alternative pain medications with fewer problems could prove extremely helpful. An ideal analgesic would have little potential for abuse but still provide inexpensive, rapid, complete relief without side effects. No single drug has all of these qualities for treating the many types of pain. Thus, investigators have developed a multitude of analgesics. Cannabis may make a promising addition to this list. Physicians have used marijuana to alleviate pain since the beginning of the first century, when Pliny the Elder, the Roman naturalist, recommended it. The Asian surgeon Hua To used cannabis combined with alcohol as an anesthetic by 200 A. D. In modern times, clinical lore and case studies support cannabis-induced analgesia. A case study reveals that oral THC can reduce phantom limb pain- the odd, aversive sensations that seem to come from amputated body parts. Another case shows that smoked marijuana can alleviate the pain of arthritis. A third suggests a tincture of cannabis can relieve tooth and gum distress. This evidence generates intriguing hypotheses but cannot prove that effects stem from expectancy rather than genuine pharmacology. Given the dramatic impact of placebos on pain, examinations of expectancy remain extremely important. Different types of research have addressed the analgesic powers of smoked marijuana or the cannabinoids. In addition to these case studies, formal projects with larger samples also focus on this issue. These projects include tests of marijuanas painkilling effects on laboratory-induced discomfort, as well as pain from surgery, headache, and chronic illnesses like cancer. (Ralph A. Weisheit, 1996) Conclusion The future for cannabis holds many possibilities. Research on the cannabinoids and their receptors will undoubtedly continue to tell more about the human mind and body. This work could reveal additional information about the brain and immune system. Further work can test the efficacy of marijuana and the cannabinoids as medical treatments. Data on the long-term health effects of the drug could address many unanswered questions, particularly those concerning the lung and brain. Techniques may evolve to limit the drugs negative consequences, like recent efforts to develop the vaporizer to reduce noxious components of smoke. Treatments for problem users could improve. In addition, laws related to the drug may change. (Alan W. Bock, 2000) References Alan W. Bock (2000) Waiting to Inhale: The Politics of Medical Marijuana; Seven Locks, 286 pgs. Erich Goode (2001), Marijuana; Atherton, 197 pgs Hans A. Baer, Merrill Singer, Ida Susser, (1997) Medical Anthropology and the World System: A Critical Perspective; Bergin Garvey, 277 pgs. Peter J. Cohen (2006) Medical Marijuana, Compassionate Use, and Public Policy: Expert Opinion or Vox Populi? Journal article; The Hastings Center Report, Vol. 36. James R. Mcdonough (2000) Marijuana on the Ballot Journal article; Policy Review, 2000. Ralph A. Weisheit (1996) Domestic Marijuana: A Neglected Industry; Greenwood Press, 196 pgs.

HUMAN RESOURCES IN ACTION Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

HUMAN RESOURCES IN ACTION - Essay Example None of them have simply listed the positions. After clicking on the links provided by the companies, it is possible to find details about the jobs. Marriot has summarized the job position alone (Marriot International 3). It has not given additional information about the skills or qualifications needed to do the job. One is expected to deduce that from the description. Conversely, Kimpton has taken the time to outline all the duties and responsibilities, skills as well as the experience required to perform the job (Kimpton Hotels 2). The company has also outlined some of the objectives against which the applicant will work towards. Marriot may have refrained from including this information because the job is of a lower skill and will only be done part time. Regardless of these circumstances, an applicant would still want to know what would make them stand apart. What the sites do well Marriott.com has done a good job of identifying the job location. It has placed a map beside the job description so as eliminate any ambiguities. The organization has also clearly outlined the typical routines required to take on the role of a guest service representative. On the other hand, Kimpton did exceptionally well in describing the work environment of the company as well as the duties and experience of the employee. The fact that it had headings in the job positing was quite helpful. Both sites were moderately easy to navigate. One had to type in the nature of job that one requires in a search box before one could get responses. This process may sometimes waste time. Recommendation Good job postings ought to have clear headings. Marriot International hotel called their room attendants guest service representatives. Job seekers may not understand this title; it would have been better to use the generic name. Both organizations did not clarify the amount of time that one would spend performing certain duties as some could have more weight than others. In the future, it would be better to rank these duties in terms of percentages. Kimpton clarified issues about benefits but Marriot did not, yet this could be a deal breaker. Future job descriptions for Marriot should be more than a list of responsibilities for the said persons. They should include more information about job priorities, the work environment and many more features. B) Selection Three different methods Based on the job description for the general assistant manager Poste Brasserie Restaurant in Washington DC, it is possible to use the following methods of recruitment: job advertisements in newspapers or the internet, a recruitment agency, or a personal recommendation. Personal recommendations may come from one’s colleagues or peers in the same industry. Usually, referrals work best for organizations that are trying to save money as they will not have to place expensive advertisements on newspapers or the like. Furthermore, they usually come from a trustworthy person who has knowledge and experience in the industry. Conversely, they may narrow down the candidate's job pool to simply one person. Organizations may miss out on highly talented and useful individuals who were not recommended by the concerned person. Alternatively, a referral may be biased towards the applicants, especially if the referee and referrer are related. Online and newspaper advertisements may also be another way of recruiting a general assistant restaurant manager. These could be slightly costly as the organization has to

Normal Distribution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Normal Distribution - Essay Example For a group of statistics to be reliable, they need to have a normal or bell-shaped curve. In order to help achieve this outcome, the mean will need to be as close to the center as possible. Also, the standard deviation will likely be small in order to help the curve remain tall and narrow. The reason why normal distribution is so useful computationally is that it allows us to make conclusions from the data at hand. Let’s say, for instance, that a graph was skewed either to the left of the right. It would be very hard to come to any conclusive theories based off the data. This is because the data would not be reliable and could not be used to make any assumptions. Normal distribution is symmetrical, so it is easy to make conclusions just by looking at it with the naked eye. Other forms of data may require detailed calculations in order to make an inference or hypothesis. If a curve displays normal distribution, then the mean will be exactly the same figure as the median and the mode. Also, the standard deviations will be within a set range of numbers. If a curve is bell-shaped, then more than two thirds of the distribution (68%) will lie between one standard deviation of the mean. More than this, 95% of the data will be located within two standard deviations of the mean. All these figures are useful when working out probability. It is possible to say that there is a certain percent of a variable falling within a certain range on the graph. The tests such as Goodness of Fit, Independence, and ANOVA all use other distributions because the data is not symmetrically aligned. It could be that the distribution is skewed, either to the left or the right, and thus it is not possible to come to a conclusion simply by looking at the graph. The occurrence of outliers is also likely in such a case. One such method is the Chi-square

Delta Airlines Employee Motivation and Performance Research Paper

Delta Airlines Employee Motivation and Performance - Research Paper Example However, an employee can only be eligible for such privileges after working for an initial minimum of thirty days. The travel privileges can be used across all the destinations that are covered by Delta Airlines. Through this program, employees in the airline have been able to travel to different global destinations and they reciprocate in appreciation of their employer’s effort make their work experience enjoyable. The reciprocation is seen through improved employee performance and proper relations with the Airline management (Nelson, & Quick, 2013). In addition, the employees’ relatives can also enjoy the travel privileges. Spouses, minors mainly students and parents are entitled to the provision of free travel services. Employees’ children that are nondependent travel companions and friends can also enjoy reduced travel charges. It is notable that the employees’ families are an integral part of their lives and may play a big role in compelling them to keep working at the airline. If the families and friends receive such privileges, they may impact positively on the employees’ attitude towards their role at the airline. Consequently, the employees are compelled to keep working for the airline and develop a positive assertiveness towards the execution of their duties (Grodal, Nelson & Siino, 2015). The employees and their family members eligible for the travel privileges are expected to be on board after other commercial passengers have boarded the flights. Therefore, they occupy the spaces that are still available after all the revenue travellers are on board. Before the travel privileges are activated, the employees are expected to pay an activation fee amounting to fifty dollars. The travel privileges are applicable after the proper guidelines are adhered to and relate to all the employees. In order to maintain its well-established status in the airline industry, Delta Airlines offers a number of rewarding benefits to

A Traditional Definition Of Leadership Management Essay

A Traditional Definition Of Leadership Management Essay A traditional definition of leadership: Leadership is an interpersonal influence directed toward the achievement of a goal or goals. Three important parts of this definition are the terms interpersonal, influence, and goal. Â · Interpersonal means between persons. Thus, a leader has more than one person (group) to lead. Â · Influence is the power to affect others. Â · Goal is the end one strives to attain. Basically, this traditional definition of leadership says that a leader influences more than one person toward a goal. The definition of leadership used in this course follows. LEADERSHIP is a dynamic relationship based on mutual influence and common purpose between leaders and collaborators in which both are moved to higher levels of motivation and moral development as they affect real, intended change. (Kevin Freiberg and Jackie Freiberg, NUTS! Southwest Airlines Crazy Recipe for Business and Personal Success, Bard Press, 1996, p. 298) Three important parts of this definition are the terms relationship, mutual, and collaborators. Relationship is the connection between people. Mutual means shared in common. Collaborators cooperate or work together. This definition of leadership says that the leader is influenced by the collaborators while they work together to achieve an important goal. Leadership versus Management A leader can be a manager, but a manager is not necessarily a leader. The leader of the work group may emerge informally as the choice of the group. If a manager is able to influence people to achieve the goals of the organization, without using his or her formal authority to do so, then the manager is demonstrating leadership. According to John P. Kotter in his book, A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs From Management (The Free Press, 1990), managers must know how to lead as well as manage. Without leading as well as managing, todays organizations face the threat of extinction. Management is the process of setting and achieving the goals of the organization through the functions of management: planning, organizing, directing (or leading), and controlling. A manager is hired by the organization and is given formal authority to direct the activity of others in fulfilling organization goals. Thus, leading is a major part of a managers job. Yet a manager must also plan, organize, and control. Generally speaking, leadership deals with the interpersonal aspects of a managers job, whereas planning, organizing, and controlling deal with the administrative aspects. Leadership deals with change, inspiration, motivation, and influence. Management deals more with carrying out the organizations goals and maintai ning equilibrium. The key point in differentiating between leadership and management is the idea that employees willingly follow leaders because they want to, not because they have to. Leaders may not possess the formal power to reward or sanction performance. However, employees give the leader power by complying with what he or she requests. On the other hand, managers may have to rely on formal authority to get employees to accomplish goals. Trait Theories In the 1920s and 1930s, leadership research focused on trying to identify the traits that differentiated leaders from non-leaders. These early leadership theories were content theories, focusing on what an effective leader is, not on how to effectively lead. The trait approach to understanding leadership assumes that certain physical, social, and personal characteristics are inherent in leaders. Sets of traits and characteristics were identified to assist in selecting the right people to become leaders. Physical traits include being young to middle-aged, energetic, tall, and handsome. Social background traits include being educated at the right schools and being socially prominent or upwardly mobile. Social characteristics include being charismatic, charming, tactful, popular, cooperative, and diplomatic. Personality traits include being self-confident, adaptable, assertive, and emotionally stable. Task-related characteristics include being driven to excel, accepting of responsibilit y, having initiative, and being results-oriented. Trait theories intended to identify traits to assist in selecting leaders since traits are related to leadership effectiveness in many situations. The trait approach to understanding leadership supports the use of tests and interviews in the selection of managers. The interviewer is typically attempting to match the traits and characteristics of the applicant to the position. For example, most interviewers attempt to evaluate how well the applicant can work with people. Trait theory has not been able to identify a set of traits that will consistently distinguish leaders from followers. Trait theory posits key traits for successful leadership (drive, desire to lead, integrity, self-confidence, intelligence, and job-relevant knowledge) yet does not make a judgment as to whether these traits are inherent to individuals or whether they can be developed through training and education. No two leaders are alike. Furthermore, no leader possesses all of the traits. Comparing leaders in different situations suggests that the traits of leaders depend on the situation. Thus, traits were de-emphasized to take into account situational conditions (contingency perspective). Behavioral Theories The behavioral theorists identified determinants of leadership so that people could be trained to be leaders. They developed training programs to change managers leadership behaviors and assumed that the best styles of leadership could be learned. Theory X and Theory Y Douglas McGregor described Theory X and Theory Y in his book, The Human Side of Enterprise. Theory X and Theory Y each represent different ways in which leaders view employees. Theory X managers believe that employees are motivated mainly by money, are lazy, uncooperative, and have poor work habits. Theory Y managers believe that subordinates work hard, are cooperative, and have positive attitudes. Theory X is the traditional view of direction and control by managers. 1. The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid if he or she can. 2. Because of this human characteristic of dislike of work, most people must be controlled, directed, and threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of organizational objectives. 3. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, wants security above all. Theory X leads naturally to an emphasis on the tactics of control to procedures and techniques for telling people what to do, for determining whether they are doing it, and for administering rewards and punishment. Theory X explains the consequences of a particular managerial strategy. Because its assumptions are so unnecessarily limiting, it prevents managers from seeing the possibilities inherent in other managerial strategies. As long as the assumptions of Theory X influence managerial strategy, organizations will fail to discover, let alone utilize, the potentialities of the average human being. Theory Y is the view that individual and organizational goals can be integrated. 1. The expenditures of physical and mental effort in work are as natural as play or rest. 2. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing out effort toward organizational objectives. 3. Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. 4. The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but also to seek responsibility. 5. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of organizational problems in widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population. 6. Under the condition of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized. Theory Ys purpose is to encourage integration, to create a situation in which an employee can achieve his or her own goals best by directing his or her efforts toward the objectives of the organization. It is a deliberate attempt to link improvement in managerial competence with the satisfaction of higher-level ego and self-actualization needs. Theory Y leads to a preoccupation with the nature of relationships, with the creation of an environment which will encourage commitment to organizational objectives and which will provide opportunities for the maximum exercise of initiative, ingenuity, and self-direction in achieving them. Ohio State and University of Michigan Studies conducted at the Ohio State University and the University of Michigan identified two leadership styles and two types of leader behaviors. The Ohio State study identified two leadership styles: considerate and initiating structure. The University of Michigan study classified leaders behaviors as being production- or employee-centered. The primary concern of leaders with considerate and employee-centered style is the employees welfare. The primary concern of leaders with initiating-structure and production-centered styles is achieving goals. Research findings on which dimension is most important for satisfaction and productivity are inconclusive. However, employee oriented leaders appear to be associated with high group productivity and job satisfaction. University of Iowa Another approach to leader behavior focused on identifying the best leadership styles. Work at the University of Iowa identified democratic (participation and delegation), autocratic (dictating and centralized) and laissez-faire styles (group freedom in decision making). Research findings were also inconclusive. The Managerial Grid The dimensions identified at the University of Michigan provided the basis for the development of the managerial grid model developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton. It identifies five various leadership styles that represent different combinations of concern for people and concern for production. Managers who scored high on both these dimensions simultaneously (labeled team management) performed best. The five leadership styles of the managerial grid include impoverished, country club, produce or perish, middle-of-the road, and team. The impoverished style is located at the lower left-hand corner of the grid, point (1, 1). It is characterized by low concern for both people and production. The primary objective of the impoverished style is for managers to stay out of trouble. The country club style is located at the upper left-hand corner of the grid, point (1, 9). It is characterized as a high concern for people and a low concern for production. The primary objective of the country club style is to create a secure and comfortable atmosphere and trust that subordinates will respond positively. The produce or perish style is located at the lower right-hand corner of the grid, point (9,1). A high concern for production and a low concern for people characterize it. The primary objective of the produce or perish style is to achieve the organizations goals. To accomplish the organizatio ns goals, it is not necessary to consider employees needs as relevant. The middle-of-the-road style is located at the middle of the grid, point (5, 5). A balance between workers needs and the organizations productivity goals characterize it. The primary objective of the middle-of-the-road style is to maintain employee morale at a level sufficient to get the organizations work done. The team style is located at the upper right-hand of the grid, point (9, 9). It is characterized by a high concern for people and production. The primary objective of the team style is to establish cohesion and foster a feeling of commitment among workers. Contingency Theories Successful leaders must be able to identify clues in an environment and adapt their leader behavior to meet the needs of their followers and of the particular situation. Even with good diagnostic skills, leaders may not be effective unless they can adapt their leadership style to meet the demands of their environment. Fiedlers Contingency Model Leadership Theory and Research: Perspectives and Directions (Academic Press Inc (HBJ), 1993) was a tribute to Fred Fiedlers 40 year study of leadership and organizational effectiveness. The editors, Martin M. Chemers and Roya Ayman, write of Fiedlers contribution: The realization that leadership effectiveness depends on the interaction of qualities of the leader with demands of the situation in which the leader functions, made the simplistic one best way approach of earlier eras obsolete. Fred E. Fiedlers contingency theory postulates that there is no best way for managers to lead. Situations will create different leadership style requirements for a manager. The solution to a managerial situation is contingent on the factors that impinge on the situation. For example, in a highly routinized (mechanistic) environment where repetitive tasks are the norm, a certain leadership style may result in the best performance. The same leadership style may not work in a very dynamic environment. Fiedler looked at three situations that could define the condition of a managerial task: 1. Leader member relations: How well do the manager and the employees get along? 2. The task structure: Is the job highly structured, fairly unstructured, or somewhere in between? 3. Position power: How much authority does the manager possess? Managers were rated as to whether they were relationship oriented or task oriented. Task oriented managers tend to do better in situations that have good leader-member relationships, structured tasks, and either weak or strong position power. They do well when the task is unstructured but position power is strong. Also, they did well at the other end of the spectrum when the leader member relations were moderate to poor and the task was unstructured. Relationship oriented managers do better in all other situations. Thus, a given situation might call for a manager with a different style or a manager who could take on a different style for a different situation. These environmental variables are combined in a weighted sum that is termed Favorable at one end and unfavorable at the other. Task oriented style is preferable at the clearly defined extremes of favorable and unfavorable environments, but relationship orientation excels in the middle ground. Managers could attempt to reshape the environment variables to match their style. Another aspect of the contingency model theory is that the leader-member relations, task structure, and position power dictate a leaders situational control. Leader-member relations are the amount of loyalty, dependability, and support that the leader receives from employees. It is a measure of how the manager perceives he or she and the group of employees is getting along together. In a favorable relationship the manager has a high task structure and is able to reward and or punish employees without any problems. In an unfavorable relationship the task is usually unstructured and the leader possesses limited authority. The spelling out in detail (favorable) of what is required of subordinates affects task structure. Positioning power measures the amount of power or authority the manager perceives the organization has given him or her for the purpose of directing, rewarding, and punishing subordinates. Positioning power of managers depends on the taking away (favorable) or increasing (unfavorable) the decision-making power of employees. The task-motivated style leader experiences pride and satisfaction in the task accomplishment for the organization, while the relationship-motivated style seeks to build interpersonal relations and extend extra help for the team development in the organization. There is no good or bad leadership style. Each person has his or her own preferences for leadership. Task-motivated leaders are at their best when the group performs successfully such as achieving a new sales record or outperforming the major competitor. Relationship-oriented leaders are at their best when greater customer satisfaction is gained and a positive company image is established. Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership theory is based on the amount of direction (task behavior) and amount of socio-emotional support (relationship behavior) a leader must provide given the situation and the level of maturity of the followers. Task behavior is the extent to which the leader engages in spelling out the duties and responsibilities to an individual or group. This behavior includes telling people what to do, how to do it, when to do it, where to do it, and whos to do it. In task behavior the leader engages in one-way communication. Relationship behavior is the extent to which the leader engages in two-way or multi-way communications. This includes listening, facilitating, and supportive behaviors. In relationship behavior the leader engages in two-way communication by providing socio-emotional support. Maturity is the willingness and ability of a person to take responsibility for directing his or her own behavior. People tend to have varying degrees of maturity, d epending on the specific task, function, or objective that a leader is attempting to accomplish through their efforts. To determine the appropriate leadership style to use in a given situation, the leader must first determine the maturity level of the followers in relation to the specific task that the leader is attempting to accomplish through the effort of the followers. As the level of followers maturity increases, the leader should begin to reduce his or her task behavior and increase relationship behavior until the followers reach a moderate level of maturity. As the followers begin to move into an above average level of maturity, the leader should decrease not only task behavior but also relationship behavior. Once the maturity level is identified, the appropriate leadership style can be determined. The four leadership styles are telling, selling, participating, and delegating. High task/low relationship behavior (S1) is referred to as telling. The leader provides clear instructions and specific direction. Telling style is best matched with a low follower readiness level. High task/high relationship behavior (S2) is referred to as selling. The leader encourages two-way communication and helps build confidence and motivation on the part of the employee, although the leader still has responsibility and controls decision making. Selling style is best matched with a moderate follower readiness level. High relationship/low task behavior (S3) is referred to as participating. With this style, the leader and followers share decision making and no longer need or expect the relationship to be directive. Participating style is best matched with a moderate follower readiness level. Low relationship/lo w task behavior (S4) is labeled delegating. This style is appropriate for leaders whose followers are ready to accomplish a particular task and are both competent and motivated to take full responsibility. Delegating style is best matched with a high follower readiness level. Houses Path-Goal Model The path-goal theory developed by Robert House is based on the expectancy theory of motivation. The managers job is viewed as coaching or guiding workers to choose the best paths for reaching their goals. Best is judged by the accompanying achievement of organizational goals. It is based on the precepts of goal setting theory and argues that leaders will have to engage in different types of leadership behavior depending on the nature and demands of the particular situation. Its the leaders job to assist followers in attaining goals and to provide direction and support needed to ensure that their goals are compatible with the organizations. A leaders behavior is acceptable to subordinates when viewed as a source of satisfaction, and motivational when need satisfaction is contingent on performance, and the leader facilitates, coaches and rewards effective performance. Path goal theory identifies achievement-oriented, directive, participative and supportive leadership styles. In achievement-oriented leadership, the leader sets challenging goals for followers, expects them to perform at their highest level, and shows confidence in their ability to meet this expectation. This style is appropriate when the follower suffers from a lack of job challenge. In directive leadership, the leader lets followers know what is expected of them and tells them how to perform their tasks. This style is appropriate when the follower has an ambiguous job. Participative leadership involves leaders consulting with followers and asking for their suggestions before making a decision. This style is appropriate when the follower is using improper procedures or is making poor decisions. In supportive leadership, the leader is friendly and approachable. He or she shows concern for followers psychological well being. This style is appropriate when the followers lack confidence. Path-Goal theory assumes that leaders are flexible and that they can change their style, as situations require. The theory proposes two contingency variables (environment and follower characteristics) that moderate the leader behavior-outcome relationship. Environment is outside the control of followers-task structure, authority system, and work group. Environmental factors determine the type of leader behavior required if follower outcomes are to be maximized. Follower characteristics are the locus of control, experience, and perceived ability. Personal characteristics of subordinates determine how the environment and leader are interpreted. Effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers achieve their goals and make the journey easier by reducing roadblocks and pitfalls. Research demonstrates that employee performance and satisfaction are positively influenced when the leader compensates for the shortcomings in either the employee or the work setting. Vroom, Yetton, Jago Leader-Participation Model The Vroom, Yetton, Jago leader-participation model relates leadership behavior and participation to decision making. The model provides a set of sequential rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision making in different situations. It is a decision tree, requiring yes and no answers incorporating contingencies about task structure and alternative styles. The following contingency questions must be answered to determine the appropriate leadership style in the leader-participation model. Â · Quality Requirement: How important is the technical quality of this decision? Â · Commitment Requirement: How important is subordinate commitment to the decision? Â · Leaders Information: Do you have sufficient information to make a high-quality decision? Â · Problem Structure: Is the problem well structured? Â · Commitment Probability: If you were to make the decision yourself, are you reasonably certain that your subordinates would be committed to the decision? Â · Goal Congruence: Do subordinates share the organizational goals to be attained in solving this problem? Â · Subordinate Conflict: Is conflict among subordinates over preferred solutions likely? Â · Subordinate Information: Do subordinates have sufficient information to make a high-quality decision? Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership blends the behavioral theories with a little dab of trait theories. Transactional leaders, such as those identified in contingency theories, guide followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements. However, transformational leaders, who are charismatic and visionary, can inspire followers to transcend their own self-interest for the good of the organization. Transformational leaders appeal to followers ideals and moral values and inspire them to think about problems in new or different ways. Leader behaviors used to influence followers include vision, framing, and impression management. Vision is the ability of the leader to bind people together with an idea. Framing is the process whereby leaders define the purpose of their movement in highly meaningful terms. Impression management is a leaders attempt to control the impressions that others form about the leader by practicing behaviors that make the leader more attra ctive and appealing to others. Research indicates that transformational, as compared to transactional, leadership is more strongly correlated with lower turnover rates, higher productivity, and higher employee satisfaction. A transformational leader instills feelings of confidence, admiration and commitment in the followers. He or she is charismatic, creating a special bond with followers, articulating a vision with which the followers identify and for which they are willing to work. Each follower is coached, advised, and delegated some authority. The transformational leader stimulates followers intellectually, arousing them to develop new ways to think about problems. The leader uses contingent rewards to positively reinforce performances that are consistent with the leaders wishes. Management is by exception. The leader takes initiative only when there are problems and is not actively involved when things are going well. The transformational leader commits people to action and converts followers into leaders. Transformational leaders are relevant to todays workplace because they are flexible and innovative. While it is important to have leaders with the appropriate orientation defining tasks and managing interrelationships, it is even more important to have leaders who can bring organizations into futures they have not yet imagined. Transformational leadership is the essence of creating and sustaining competitive advantage.

Affirmative Action Essay -- essays research papers

Since the beginning of time there has been prejudice and hate. Adam and Eve hated snakes. Jews hated Jesus. Sugar Ray Leonard hated Tommy Hearns. Prejudice is caused by two things: ignorance and hate. Prejudice and mistreatment has existed in this country, first with American-Indians and then later with African-Americans and many other minorities. The selling and trading of slaves is a shadow that has been hanging over the heads of white Americans for two centuries. Some people feel that it is the white-American's duty to pay the black population back. According to Spencer Perkins, co-author of More than Equals: Racial Healing for the Sake of Gospel, in reference to the long-standing racial divisions in America, "It took us 300 years to separate ourselves like this, it's going to take a while to undo that." (Perkins 26) Affirmative action is designed to give minorities, such as blacks, the opportunity to maintain jobs in our prejudicial society. For those who support Affirmative Action they define it as a way to give the disadvantaged a chance at the "American dream." Those who do not support Affirmative Action define it as giving minorities positions that they are not qualified to have. As Mr. Khalenberg, head editor of The New Republic says, "we will still reward those who play the victim" (Khalenberg 27). Just imagine that you have gone through six years of college and have gotten your degree. You go looking for a job and even though they are tough to come by you manage to get an interview with a well-known company. The interviewer tells you that you and one other person are equally qualified and in the running for the job. You get a call later telling you that you didn't get the job because the company had to hire a minority. You would most likely be angry, right? The purpose of this paper is to show the differences in how people feel about the issues involved with affirmative action. This paper was written to give different views on affirmative action. First I will give a little background and general information on the subject. Secondly, I will show how those that are in support of affirmative action feel. I will then balance the arguement out by showing how those who oppose affirmative action feel. I will also explore the minorities that are also against affirmative action. Finally, I will tell what causes the consequences that affirmative... ...America today. Because of the horrid history of this nation, the disgust directed at "White America" is not surprising, however, it does seem surprising to many Americans that there are minorities who are against affirmative action. This country, whether we will admit it or not, was built on the blood and sweat of minorities. Therefore it should not be unexpected that minorities would like a fair share of what this country has the to offer. If this happens, maybe minorities will someday have the opportunity to walk our "streets of gold." Works Cited Fredrickson, George M. Racism : A Short History. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002 Kahlenberg, Richard. "Class, Not Race." The New Republic April 3, 1995: 21-27. O’Gara, Juliane. Making Workplaces Work. Washington, DC: Business and Professional Women’s Foundation. 1995 Perkins, Spencer and Chris Rice. More than Equals: Racial Healing for the Sake of the Gospel, Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1993. Rosen, Jeffery. â€Å"Is Affirmative Action Doomed?† New Republic 17 Oct. 1994: 25+ Waller, James. Face to Face: The Changing State of Racism Across America, New York: Plenum Publishing Corp., 1998.